Topic Overview
What is PTSD?
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
can occur after you have been through a traumatic event.
A traumatic event is something horrible and scary that you see or that happens
to you. During this type of event, you think that your life or others' lives
are in danger. You may feel afraid or feel that you have no control over what
is happening.
Anyone who has gone through a life-threatening
event can develop PTSD. These events can include:
- Physical violence.
- Sexual violence, such as rape.
- Serious accidents, such as a car wreck.
- Natural
disasters, such as a fire, tornado, flood, or earthquake.
- Combat.
- Military sexual trauma.
- Terrorist
attacks.
After the event, you might find that you are thinking a lot about what happened, avoiding reminders about the event, and thinking negative thoughts about yourself and the world.
What are the symptoms?
After going through a
traumatic event, you may:
- Feel upset by things that remind you of what
happened.
- Have nightmares, vivid memories, or flashbacks of the
event. You may feel like it's happening all over again.
- Avoid
places or things that remind you of what happened.
- Often feel bad about yourself and the world.
- Feel numb or
lose interest in things you used to care about.
- Feel that you are
always in danger.
- Feel anxious, jittery, or irritated.
- Have trouble sleeping or keeping your mind on one thing.
PTSD symptoms can change your behaviour and how you live
your life. You may pull away from other people, work all the time, or
use drugs or alcohol. You may find it hard to be in
relationships, and you may have problems with your spouse and family. You may
become
depressed. Some people with PTSD also have
panic attacks, which are sudden feelings of fear or
worry that something bad is about to happen.
Children can have
PTSD too. They may have the symptoms above and symptoms that depend on how old
they are. As children get older their symptoms are more like those of
adults.
- Young children may become upset if their
parents are not close by. Or children may have trouble sleeping or suddenly have trouble with
toilet training or going to the washroom.
- Children who are in the first few years of elementary school
(ages 6 to 9) may act out the trauma through play, drawings, or stories. They
may complain of physical problems or become more irritable or aggressive. They
also may develop fears and anxiety that don't seem to be caused by the
traumatic event.
What can you do if you think you have PTSD?
If you think
you have PTSD, it's important to get treatment. Treatment can work, and early
treatment may help reduce long-term symptoms.footnote 1, footnote 2
If you think you have PTSD:
- Talk to your family doctor.
- Talk
to a mental health professional, such as a therapist.
- If you're a
veteran, contact Veterans Affairs Canada.
- Talk to a
close friend or family member. He or she may be able to support you and find
you help.
- Talk to a religious leader.
-
Fill out this form
(What is a PDF document?)
and take it with you to the doctor.
If you have thoughts about hurting yourself or someone else, call
911
, check your local phone book
or provincial website for resources on getting help in your area, or go to a hospital emergency room.
How does PTSD develop?
All people with PTSD have
personally experienced—or have experienced through others—a traumatic event that caused them to fear for their lives, see
horrible things, and feel helpless. Strong emotions caused by the event create
changes in the brain that may result in PTSD.footnote 3
Many people who go through a traumatic event don't get PTSD. It isn't
clear why some people develop PTSD and others don't. How likely you are to get
PTSD depends on many things. These include:
- How intense the trauma was.
- If
you lost a loved one or were hurt.
- How close you were to the
event.
- How strong your reaction was.
- How much you felt
in control of events.
- How much help and support you got after the
event.
PTSD symptoms usually start soon after the traumatic
event, but they may not happen until months or years later. They also may come
and go over many years. About half of people who develop PTSD get
better at some time. But other people who
develop PTSD always will have some symptoms.footnote 4
If you have symptoms of PTSD, counselling can help you cope. Your symptoms
don't have to interfere with your everyday activities, work, and relationships.
It is never too late to get professional help or other forms of support that
can help you manage the symptoms of PTSD.
Reminders and
anniversaries of the event can make symptoms worse.
How is PTSD treated?
The most effective treatments
for PTSD are:footnote 5, footnote 6
-
Counselling, which can help you understand your thoughts
and learn ways to cope with your feelings. This can help you feel more in
control and get you back to the activities in your life. A type of counselling
called cognitive-behavioural therapy has been proven effective for treating PTSD.footnote 1, footnote 2
-
Antidepressant medicines,
especially selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). These can help you
feel less sad and worried. SSRIs include fluoxetine (such
as Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), and sertraline (Zoloft).
You may need to try different types of treatment before
finding the one that helps you. Your doctor will help you with this. These
treatments may include other types of medicines and other forms of counselling,
such as
group counselling. If you have other problems along
with PTSD, such as overuse of alcohol or drugs, you may need treatment for
those also.
Treatment can help you feel more in control of your
emotions, have fewer symptoms, and enjoy life again.
Frequently Asked Questions
About PTSD:
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Treatment:
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Living with PTSD:
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PTSD and veterans:
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Symptoms
Symptoms of
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be
terrifying. They may disrupt your life and make it hard to continue with your
daily activities. It may be hard just to get through the day.
PTSD
symptoms usually start soon after the traumatic event, but they may not happen
until months or years later. They also may come and go over many years. If the
symptoms last longer than 4 weeks, cause you great distress, or interfere with
your work or home life, you may have PTSD.
Even if you
always have some symptoms, counselling can help you cope. Your symptoms don't
have to interfere with your everyday activities, work, and relationships.
Most people who go through a traumatic event have some symptoms
at the beginning but don't develop PTSD.
There are four types of
symptoms:
Reliving the event
Bad memories of the traumatic event can come back at any time. You may
feel the same fear and horror you did when the event took place. You may feel
like you're going through the event again. This is called a flashback.
Sometimes there is a trigger: a sound or sight that causes you to relive the
event. Triggers might include:
- Hearing a car backfire, which can bring back
memories of gunfire and war for a combat veteran.
- Seeing a car
crash, which can remind a crash survivor of his or her own
crash.
- Seeing a news report of a sexual assault, which may bring
back memories of assault for a woman who was raped.
Avoiding situations that remind you of the event
You may try to avoid situations or people that
trigger memories of the traumatic event. You may even avoid talking or thinking
about the event.
- A person who was in an earthquake may avoid
watching television shows or movies in which there are
earthquakes.
- A person who was robbed at gunpoint while ordering at
a hamburger drive-in may avoid fast-food restaurants.
- Some people
may keep very busy or avoid seeking help. This keeps them from having to think
or talk about the event.
Feeling bad about yourself or others
You may
find it hard to express your feelings. This is another way to avoid
memories.
- You may not have positive or loving feelings
toward other people and may stay away from relationships.
- You may blame yourself for what happened. You may feel guilt, fear, or shame.
- You may forget
about parts of the traumatic event or not be able to talk about them.
Feeling keyed up
You
may be alert and on the lookout for danger. This is known as increased
emotional arousal. It can cause you to:
- Suddenly become angry or
irritable.
- Have a hard time sleeping.
- Have trouble
concentrating.
- Have reckless behaviour or to think about hurting yourself.
- Fear for your safety and always feel on
guard.
- Be very startled when someone surprises you.
Other symptoms
Other symptoms also may
include:
- Physical symptoms for no reason you can think
of (called somatic complaints).
- Difficulty controlling your
emotions.
- Problems with family or friends.
- Impulsive or
self-destructive behaviour.
- Changed beliefs or changed personality
traits.
PTSD in children and teens
Children can have PTSD
too. They may have the symptoms listed above and/or symptoms that depend on how
old they are. As children get older, their symptoms are more like those of
adults.
- Young children may become upset if their
parents are not close by. Or children may have trouble sleeping or suddenly have trouble with
toilet training or going to the washroom.
- Children who are in the first few years of elementary school
(ages 6 to 9) may act out the trauma through play, drawings, or stories. They
may complain of physical problems or become more irritable or aggressive. They
also may have fears and anxiety that don't seem to be caused by the traumatic
event.
If you think you or a loved one has symptoms of PTSD, see your doctor right away.
Fill out this form(What is a PDF document?) and take it to your doctor. Treatment can work, and early
treatment may help reduce long-term symptoms.footnote 2
Military Concerns
If you were in the military, you
may have seen combat. You may have been on missions that exposed you to
horrible and life-threatening experiences. You may have been shot at, seen a
buddy shot, or seen death. These are types of events that can lead to
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Other things about a combat situation can add more stress to
an already stressful situation and may contribute to PTSD and other mental
health problems.footnote 7 These
things include what you do in the war, the politics around the war, where it's
fought, and the type of enemy you face.
Another cause of PTSD in the military can be
military sexual trauma (MST). This is any sexual
harassment or sexual assault that occurs while you are in the military. MST can
happen to men and women and can occur during peacetime, training, or war.
Getting treatment
Many veterans don't seek
treatment for PTSD. You may feel that treatment won't help, or worry about what
people will think. Your military background may add other pressures that keep
you from seeking treatment. You may feel that it will hurt your career, or that
those in your unit will lose faith in you. You may fear that your unit will see
you as weak.
- If you need help deciding to see your doctor,
see some reasons why people don't get help and ways to overcome them.
- Veterans Affairs Canada (VAC) has many programs
for veterans and their families who are worried about PTSD or related problems.
If you are a veteran, contact your closest VAC district office about these resources (www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/contact#map). You can find
help with treatment, jobs, housing, and sexual assault.
Treatment
There are many types of treatment for
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). You and your
doctor will discuss the best treatment for you. You may have to try a number of
treatments before you find one that works for you.
A type of
counselling called cognitive-behavioural therapy and medicines known as SSRIs
appear to be the most effective treatments for PTSD.footnote 2
Treatment can help you feel more in control of your emotions and result in
fewer symptoms, but you may still have some bad memories.
Counselling means talking with a therapist on your own or in a group about the
traumatic event and PTSD. You will talk with your therapist about your memories
and feelings. This will help you change how you think about your trauma. You
will learn how to deal with painful feelings and memories, so you can feel
better.
Counselling
There are different types of
counselling for PTSD. Several types of therapy have been shown to be effective in treating PTSD. These therapies are:
-
Cognitive therapy, in which you learn to
change thoughts about the trauma that are not true or that cause you stress.
-
Exposure therapy, in
which you talk about the traumatic event over and over, in a safe place, until
you have less fear.
-
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), in which you focus on hand
movements and sounds while talking about the traumatic event.
Finding a therapist you trust is important. A good
therapist will listen to your concerns and help you make changes in your life.
Your doctor can help you find one. If you are a veteran, Veterans Affairs Canada is a good place
to start. Churches sometimes offer services that help people get counselling. Or
you can call your local health unit.
SSRI medicine
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) are a type of antidepressant medicine. These can
help you feel less sad and worried. They appear to be helpful, and for some
people they are very effective. SSRIs include fluoxetine
(such as Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), and sertraline (Zoloft).
Other types of treatment
Your doctor also may
suggest you try other types of medicines and other forms of counselling.
-
Other types of counselling include group
treatment, brief psychodynamic psychotherapy, and family
therapy.
- Other types of medicines include:
- Antidepressants such as
amitriptyline (Elavil), imipramine, mirtazapine (Remeron), and venlafaxine extended release (Effexor). One study
has shown that venlafaxine XR reduced PTSD symptoms.footnote 8
- Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
such as phenelzine (Nardil).
- Mood stabilizers such as carbamazepine (Tegretol) and lithium
(Carbolith or Lithane). Mood stabilizers are sometimes taken with
other medicines used for PTSD.
- Antipsychotics such
as risperidone (Risperdal). These medicines may help with symptoms like
nightmares or flashbacks. More research is needed to find out how well these
drugs work.
- Prazosin (Minipress), which is used for nightmares and
sleep problems related to PTSD.
If you are using medicine, take it exactly as prescribed.
Call your doctor if it's not helping your symptoms or if the side effects are
very bad. You and your doctor will decide what to do.
Deciding to get treatment
Unfortunately, many
people don't seek treatment for PTSD. You may not seek treatment because you
think the symptoms are not bad enough or that you can work things out on your
own. But getting treatment is important.
Treatment can make your
symptoms less intense and stop them from coming back. It can help you connect
with your family, friends, and community. Many people get better with
treatment.
If you need help deciding whether to see your doctor,
see some reasons why people don't get help and ways to overcome them.
When you first see your therapist,
he or she will ask questions about the traumatic event causing PTSD and how
severe your symptoms are. You may want your spouse, your partner, or a close
family member to come with you. This person can help your doctor understand
your symptoms and can help your therapist understand what you've been going
through. Being with someone you trust helps you relax.
If you have
other problems along with PTSD, such as overuse of alcohol or drugs, you also
may need treatment for those problems.
Recovery
Recovery from PTSD does not mean forgetting the past trauma. It does mean that you learn how to not have the bad physical and emotional reactions in response to memories so that you can fully live your life. Recovery is not a cure. It helps you
believe that you can reach your goals and learn new things to help yourself. It
helps you gain self-confidence and respect for yourself.
The
10 principles of recovery make you the most important part of your recovery. Your
counsellor, doctor, family, and medicines can help you, but you're the one who
makes the decisions. In the recovery process, you learn to cope with your
symptoms and challenges and to develop social support.
Positive coping skills
Coping is about dealing
with your symptoms. When you cope with your symptoms in a positive way, you
often feel more in control. You accept what the traumatic event did and take
steps to improve your life.
- Learn about PTSD to better understand how and
why it affects you.
-
Relieve stress to relax and feel less
anxious.
-
Exercise and be active to reduce how tense you feel.
People who are fit usually have less anxiety, depression, and stress than
people who aren't active.footnote 9
-
Get enough sleep to help your mood and make you feel less stressed. Many people
with PTSD have trouble sleeping because they feel nervous and anxious or can't
stop thinking about the traumatic event.
-
Eat a balanced diet to help your body deal with tension and stress. Whole
grains, dairy products, fruits, vegetables, and protein are part of a balanced
diet.
- Find things to do to ease your memories and reactions.
Consider channelling your emotions into activities or sports, painting or
writing, or a rewarding job.
- Identify your beliefs to keep you balanced. PTSD can cause a
spiritual crisis. You may begin to question your own beliefs and values and ask
yourself why war or disasters happen. If this happens to you, talk to a family
member, friend, or spiritual advisor. Consider spiritual study, prayer, or
meditation.
Negative coping skills
Negative coping skills are certain ways you may try to
deal with your symptoms and problems that cause more harm than good. These are
quick fixes that don't improve your situation in the long run. They include
drinking too much, avoiding others, and lashing out.
Support groups and social support
There are times
when you may need a shoulder to cry on or a ride to the doctor. You may want to
learn more about PTSD or talk with others who have PTSD. You need people who
understand what you are going through and will help you and care about you.
This is your support network.
Support takes many
forms. You can find it in seminars and groups led by professionals, in groups
made up of others with PTSD, and in your relationships with family and friends.
Emotional Health and Well-Being
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) doesn't always
occur alone. Other medical conditions
often occur with it, such as:
Family and Community
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can harm your relationships with your family and
community. Feelings of anger and depression and not wanting to deal with people
can make it hard to connect with them. Pay attention to how you act with your
family and try not to pull away. Your relationships can make a big difference
in your recovery from PTSD.
Here are things you can do to help
yourself, your family, and your community better understand and deal with PTSD.
-
Know when to get crisis help. Sometimes
you need help right away. This may be the case when you have had thoughts about
suicide or if anger turns to rage.
-
Help your family.
Your family plays an important part in your recovery from PTSD. But you also
have to help them. This means:
- Talking to your family about PTSD and what
it does to you.
- Talking to your kids. Be sure they know they aren't
to blame.
- Talking about your triggers. Triggers are places, sounds,
and sights that can cause symptoms. They can be locations, social events, or
holidays.
- Remember that life transitions, even
positive ones such as getting married, having a baby, or starting a new job,
can cause stress and result in more PTSD symptoms.
- Keep in mind that your relationship to your community can be changed by PTSD.
Your family and community are part of your recovery. Do as
much as you can to work with them. With knowledge, your family and community
can better help you.
What can others do to help?
- If you care about someone with PTSD, here's
what you can do to help.
- Learn what you can about PTSD. The more
you know, the better you can understand what your loved one is going
through.
- Help your loved one make friends and form a social
network.
- Learn how to deal with anger. Both you and your loved one
may be angry at times.
- Learn the best way to talk with your loved
one. Be positive when you can. Don't give advice unless you are
asked.
- Take care of yourself by taking time for yourself and having
your own support system.
Some people with PTSD are also depressed. For information on
how to help with this, see:
-
Depression: Helping Someone Get Treatment.
-
Depression: Supporting Someone Who Is Depressed.
Your family and community are part of your recovery. Do
as much as you can to work with them. With this knowledge, your family and
community can better help you.
Other Places To Get Help
Organizations
Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse
www.ccsa.ca
Canadian Mental Health Association
www.cmha.ca
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) (U.S.)
www.nimh.nih.gov
Provincial and Territorial Helplines and Websites (Canada)
Many of the resources below provide help 24 hours a day, 7 days a week in multiple languages. In an emergency, call 911.
Canada-wide resources
- To find a suicide prevention crisis centre phone number or website in your province, visit the Canadian Association for Suicide Prevention's webpage at http://suicideprevention.ca/thinking-about-suicide.
- To find a rape crisis or women's centre phone number or website in your province, visit the Canadian Association of Sexual Assault Centres' webpage at www.casac.ca/content/anti-violence-centres.
- Kids and teens can call Kids Help Phone at 1-800-668-6868 (toll-free 24/7) or visit http://org.kidshelpphone.ca.
Alberta
-
Provincial Health Information Line. Health Link. Call 811 (toll-free 24/7) or visit https://myhealth.alberta.ca.
- Family Violence Info Line. Call 310-1818 (no area code required, toll-free 24/7 in Alberta) or visit http://humanservices.alberta.ca/abuse-bullying/14839.html.
- Child Abuse Hotline. Call 1-800-387-5437 (toll-free (24/7) or visit http://humanservices.alberta.ca/abuse-bullying.html.
- Sexual Assault Centre of Edmonton (SACE). Call 780-423-4121 (24/7) or visit www.sace.ab.ca.
- Bully Free Alberta. Call 1-888-456-2323 (toll-free (24/7)
or visit www.bullyfreealberta.ca.
- Mental Health Help Line. Call 1-877-303-2642 (toll-free 24/7).
- Addiction Services Helpline. Call 1-866-332-2322 (toll-free 24/7).
British Columbia
-
Provincial Health Information Line. HealthLinkBC. Call 8-1-1 (toll-free 24/7) or visit www.healthlinkbc.ca.
- Domestic Violence Helpline. Call 1-800-563-0808 (toll-free 24/7) or visit www.domesticviolencebc.ca.
- VictimLink BC. Call 1-800-563-0808 (toll-free 24/7) or visit www.victimlinkbc.ca.
- Child Abuse Prevention Website: Helpline. Call
310-1234 (toll-free) or visit
www.safekidsbc.ca/helpline.htm.
- BC Mental Health and Substance Use Services. Call 310-6789 (tool-free) or visit www.bcmhsus.ca.
- Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention Centre of British Columbia. Call 1-800-784-2433 (toll-free 24/7) or visit http://crisiscentre.bc.ca.
New Brunswick
-
Provincial Health Information Line. Tele-Care 811: Call 8-1-1 (toll free 24/7) or visit www.gnb.ca/0217/Tele-Care-e.asp.
- Emergency Social Services. During regular office hours (Monday to Friday, 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.), visit www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/social_development/about_us/emergency_socialservices.html to find the number for the office nearest you. After hours, call 1-800-442-9799 (toll-free).
- Fredericton Sexual Assault Crisis Centre. Call (506) 454-0437 (24/7) or visit www.fsacc.ca.
- Suicide Prevention CHIMO Helpline. Call 1-800-667-5005 (24/7) or visit www.gnb.ca/0055/index-e.asp.
Ontario
-
Provincial Health Information Line. Telehealth Ontario: Call 1-866-797-0000 (toll-free 24/7) or visit www.health.gov.on.ca/en/public/programs/telehealth.
- Assaulted Women's Helpline. Call 1-866-863-0511 (toll-free 24/7) or visit www.awhl.org.
- Distress Centres Ontario. Visit www.dcontario.org/help.html to find the phone number for a crisis line in your calling area.
- Drug and Alcohol Helpline. Call 1-800-565-8603 (toll-free 24/7) or visit www.drugandalcoholhelpline.ca.
- Mental Health Helpline. Call 1-866-531-2600 (toll-free 24/7) or visit www.mentalhealthhelpline.ca.
Saskatchewan
-
Provincial Health Information Line. HealthLine. Call 811 or visit www.health.gov.sk.ca/healthline.
- Family Violence Outreach. Go to www.justice.gov.sk.ca/FVO for a list of community-based organizations and their contact information, or visit www.justice.gov.sk.ca/IVAP.
- Child Protection.
Go to www.socialservices.gov.sk.ca/child-protection.pdf for a list of local child protection offices and their contact information, or visit http://www.socialservices.gov.sk.ca/child-protection.
- Mental Health and Addictions. Go to www.health.gov.sk.ca/treatment-services-directory for a list of local alcohol and drug treatment services and their contact information, or visit www.health.gov.sk.ca/alcohol-and-drug-services.
Yukon
-
Provincial Health Information Line. Yukon HealthLine: Call 811 or visit www.hss.gov.yk.ca/811.php. If you are calling from a satellite phone, you can dial 1-604-215-4700 to reach the Health Services Representative at HealthLink BC.
- Family and Children's Services. Call 1-867-667-3002 or visit www.hss.gov.yk.ca/family_children.php.
- Victim Services. Call 1-800-563-0808 (toll-free). Or visit the Department of Justice "Need Help? Phone Directory" at www.justice.gov.yk.ca/prog/cor/vs/phonedir.html.
- Alcohol and Drug Services. Call 1-855-667-5777 or visit http://.hss.gov.yk.ca/ads.php.
Other provinces
Check your local phone book or provincial or territorial website.
References
Citations
-
Cahill SP, et al. (2009). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adults. In EB Foa et al., eds., Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines From the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 2nd ed., pp. 139–222. New York: Guilford Press.
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Bisson J (2010). Post-traumatic stress disorder, search date March 2009. BMJ Clinical Evidence. Available online: http://www.clinicalevidence.com.
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Hollander E, Simeon D (2008). Anxiety disorders. In RE Hales et al., eds., The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychiatry, 5th ed., pp. 565–607. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
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Johnson DC, et al. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder. In MH Ebert et al., eds., Current Diagnosis and Treatment in Psychiatry, 2nd ed., pp. 366–377. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Forbes, D, et al. (2010). A guide to guidelines for the treatment of PTSD and related conditions. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23: 537–552.
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Department of Veterans Affairs (2010). VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline: Management of Post-Traumatic Stress, version 2.0. Available online: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/post_traumatic_stress_disorder_ptsd.asp.
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Wright KM, et al. (2012). Alcohol problems, aggression, and other externalizing behaviors after return from deployment: Understanding the role of combat exposure, internalizing symptoms, and social environment. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68(7): 782–800.
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Davidson J, et al. (2006). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with venlafaxine extended release. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(10): 1158–1165.
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Buchner DM (2012). Physical activity. In L Goldman, A Shafer, eds., Cecil Medicine, 24th ed., pp. 56–58. Philadelphia: Saunders.
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National Institute of Drug Abuse (2009). Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment: A Research-Based Guide, 2nd ed. (NIH Publication No. 09 4180). Available online: http://www.drugabuse.gov/PDF/PODAT/PODAT.pdf.
- Sadock BJ, et al. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder. In Kaplan and Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry, Behavioral Sciences/Clinical Psychiatry, 10th ed., pp. 612-622. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
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Swinson RP (2014). Psychiatric disorders: Anxiety disorders. In J Gray, ed., Therapeutic Choices. Ottawa: Canadian Pharmacists Association. https://www.e-therapeutics.ca/tc.showChapter.action?documentId=c0002. Accessed July 28, 2014.
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Swinson RP (2014). Psychiatric disorders: Post-traumatic stress disorder. In J Gray, ed., Therapeutic Choices. Ottawa: Canadian Pharmacists Association. https://www.e-therapeutics.ca/tc.showChapter.action?documentId=c0130. Accessed July 28, 2014.
-
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (2011). PTSD and problems with alcohol use. A National Center for PTSD fact sheet. Available online: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/pages/ptsd-alcohol-use.asp.
Credits
ByHealthwise Staff
Primary Medical ReviewerAdam Husney, MD - Family Medicine
Donald Sproule, MDCM, CCFP - Family Medicine
Kathleen Romito, MD - Family Medicine
Specialist Medical ReviewerJessica Hamblen, PhD - Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Current as ofNovember 20, 2015
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